Critical Analysis - An Introduction to Critical Analysis
Jerry Mertens & Dan Scriver, St. Cloud State University, June 2006
I.INTRODUCTION: This article will describe a unique set of procedures used
to develop a critical analysis repertoire. These acquired skills in thinking
critically will be used in a variety of university courses taught by the first
author. The students see supposed psychic feats at the beginning of each
class. They actually see what is more technically called in the professional
trade, “mentalism” or “mental magic tricks.” These are presented in a
“psychic-like” fashion. Students are to write explanations for these staged
supposed psychic events. In their writing, students are to use real world
descriptions and/or the scientific principles that account for the supposed
psychic events. As the course progresses, the student will learn new critical
analysis repertoires via other handouts. Hopefully, these new repertoires will
be useful in the critical analysis of the class stunts, but more importantly, in
needed situations that may come up in the future during the daily life of the
student.
The term “critical analysis” is used here instead of “critical thinking” because
the term “critical thinking” has become, at times, a dirty word, i.e., critical
thinking has, in certain places, taken on a mystic and less scientific ring and is
often used without any critical thinking taking place. A critical analysis
repertoire is learned, as is any other repertoire, through interactions with the
environment.
II. WHAT THE STUDENTS WORK ON IN CRITICAL ANALYSIS
PROCEDURE: The first author tells the students in advance that they will see
fake psychic demonstrations, for example: metal bending, levitation, mind
reading, psychic predictions, telepathy, mind control, psychkinesis (P.K.),
psychic question and answer (Q & A) techniques, play on coincidence,
psychic readings and other supposed psychic events. They are instructed to
critically analyze these supposed psychic events; thus for at least one trial in
their searching process, students are “vaccinated” against fraudulent psychic
explanations. Is this a “vaccination” for life? Probably not. This type of“vaccination,” like so many other things in life, will need intermittent
environmental booster shots. Our critical analysis repertoires continually need
updates and repair work.
III. AT WHAT POINT IN THE COURSE ARE THESE PROCEDURES
IMPLEMENTED: The first author initiates these critical analysis procedures
as soon as the class content and procedures of the course are running
smoothly. The first author also uses daily oral and written feedback
procedures in all of his classes; therefore, it takes a number of class sessions
to get the procedures and specific course content up and running smoothly.
Once implemented, these critical analysis procedures are generally used on a
daily basis, except when requirements of a course might otherwise demand it.
IV. A PROCEDURE FOR ALL SEASONS: The first author uses these critical
analysis procedures in all of the classes that he teaches. The critical analysis
material comes as an addition to the specific course’s content. All courses
can use some critical analysis scrutiny applied to its’ procedures and/or
content. In the author’s experience, “critical thinking” courses, course units on
critical thinking, and/or university wide general education “critical thinking”
requirements need regular critical analysis scrutiny. Frequently noted by the
authors is that many authors and teachers define “critical thinking” as what
they do, while non-critical thinking is what others engage in!
V. STARTING POINT FOR THE PROCEDURES: Once the class procedures
are running smoothly, the first author initiates this critical analysis procedure
with a handout about Clever HANS, a horse with a supposed math ability,
among other skills. This Clever Hans handout is broken into the 3 parts listed
below.
A. Part One: This is the classic story of how Oscar Pfungst debunked the
claims that a horse called Clever Hans had extraordinary intellectual ability
in a number of areas. Pfungst found that the supposed math ability was
really subtle cues provided to the horse. The need for critical analysis
skills to find the cause of extraordinary claims is emphasized throughout
this whole procedure.
B. Part Two: The second part of this Clever Hans handout contains
excerpts from an article by Robert Steiner entitled, “Confessions of a
Magician.” The excerpts illustrate that skeptics themselves must be careful
in their explanations of events. The author, Steiner, was a magician
performing in magic show that took place at a skeptics convention. Steiner
talked about Clever Hans. He then performed a card trick. After the show,
members of the skeptics group questioned Steiner, not on the card trick,
but rather on the false assumption that he was able to pick up on subtle
cues provided by members of the audience.
C. Part Three: After reading Steiner’s article, the first author decided to
see what would happen if his students learned about Clever Hans by
reading excerpts from “Confessions of a Magician” and then also reading
excerpts from previous letters that the first author had sent to Steiner
about this procedure. These letters told of the results from previous use of
the procedures that you are now reading. The data shows that the majority
of students also believed that the card trick was done with subtle cues,
rather than just being a card trick.
VI. HISTORY OF THE CRITICAL ANALYSIS PROCEDURES -- ELLERY
QUEEN /GHOSTBUSTER'S/SCOOBY DOO CONTEST: When the first author
came to teach in the Psychology Department at St. Cloud State University some
37 years ago, he did not have a magic repertoire or any special interest in the
area of magic. A number of students would ask questions like, "How do you, as a
behavioristic experimentally oriented psychologist, account for supposed psychic
or paranormal events?" So, the first author began to do research in the area of
the students' questions, and he found that magic and related repertoires were
employed by the supposed psychics. Since then, a behavioral look at psychics
and magic have been a strong area of interest to the first author.
One of the teaching devices the first author developed based upon his early
college teaching experiences is the procedure being described here, the
Ghostbuster/Ellery Queen/Scooby Doo E.S.P Detective Contest." It is a fun time
in class; yet, it exposes the student to a crucial critical analysis procedure. It is a
critical analysis training session. The students' writing task is to work their
environment against themselves. This process involves what the student sees,
compared to their repertoire of past learning about the material under
consideration, as well as their science knowledge. The winner of this contest (the
best detective) is determined by the best student analysis during the whole term.
Clues may be given which may help the student detective reach a partial
solution. Since the mysteries (mental magic stunts) are by design puzzling, any
part of the mystery explained by the student results in a better score on the Ellery
Queen contest. These are not grade points for the course, but rather are points
only for the Ellery Queen/Ghostbusters/Scooby Doo award. (see attachment to
the handout). Partial correct guesses do count, and the session winner usually is
a student detective who quite regularly guesses a few of these parts. At the end
of the term, the student learns if he or she is the winner of the award, but does
not get feedback on each guess since this is not a magic expose. This is a
chance to play detective, or if you prefer, practice in developing a critical analysis
repertoire. The elegant award certificate given to the winner summarizes the
objective nicely: “Name of Student: Congratulations on winning the"Ghostbuster/Ellery Queen/Scooby Doo of E.S.P." at the (Name of Class). This,
the most coveted of awards anywhere, is presented to those who have skills like
Ellery Queen, the Ghostbusters, and Scooby Doo. In the footsteps of the
Ghostbusters/Ellery Queen/Scooby Doo, your high level of correct explanations
of these supposed E.S.P. activities indicate an outstanding level of skill in
analysis of complex behavior. Good job.”
This detective routine is novel, fun, and provides good critical-analysis training.
Many of the mentalism (mental magic) stunts used by the first author are the
same props and techniques used by supposed "real psychics." In the past, St.
Cloud State University paid some supposed “real psychic” some $2,000 to use
the same gimmicked $3.25 deck of cards that the first author uses in some of his
courses.
VII. DEBUNKING: For many years the first author saw that his course objective,
to get critical analysis into the student's repertoire, would best be accomplished
by teaching how a rigorous science of behavior can account for an explanation
in the most parsimonious way. The first author, being a psychologist with a
behavior analytic orientation, holds to the position that the behavior analytic
approach is the most scientifically rigorous of any explanation offered today.
More recently the authors came to a position that this behavioral orientation can be taught faster and even more effectively using another technique of science, debunking. Debunking is defined in the dictionary as, "To strip or divest of pretentious, false, or exaggerated opinions, sentiments, or claims." Debunking can help show the shortcomings of inferential explanations of the traditional mentalistic approaches. As long as the false mentalistic explanations typical stay untouched, there is for some students, no reason to look at alternative explanations that are available. Without debunking, the person may hold to the traditional view without giving the new, more rigorous account of behavior a fair opportunity to become part of their repertoire.
VIII. PROCEDURES NOT AN EXPOSE OF MAGIC: This process is not an
expose of magic, but rather a critical analysis exercise. Historically, an interesting
incident took place which illustrates how telling a person the explanation of
supposed psychic feats does not necessarily improve their objectivity in
reference to their explanations of extraordinary events. This incident offers
further support for non-exposure of the explanations. A number of others who
teach courses in related areas have tried similar fake psychic demonstrations.
During a discussion with a sociology faculty member from another university,
who did similar activities and used similar teaching methods produced opposite
results. The colleague found that this type of demonstration had little or no effect
in changing a student's statements toward a more objective analysis of
extraordinary claims. However, the first author had found that these
demonstrations were a useful method to change these kinds of opinion
statements. (see data below) We discovered, as we looked at the apparent
contradictory result, that the one difference in our procedures was that one gave
an explanation after the demonstration and the other gave no explanation. The
colleague informed the students how he performed this supposed paranormal
feat. For example, he told the students how a key was bent. His psychic believing
students could then later contend something like, "Our instructor bent metal by a
trick," i.e., meaning by the method the student had been told was used by the
instructor. They would go on to contend, "However, real psychics do their feats
by real psychic power." For these students, “psychic” meant a method that
looked different from the one they were taught, thus it was the way real psychics
do it. The first author's students are not given explanations for a trick they just
saw. They see a supposed psychic event, but they see it done by the first author,
a known magician, a known fake “psychic”, and a debunker of psychic claims. All
they have is a known fake psychic magic trick that looks just like a supposed real
psychic event.
IX. HANDOUTS USED IN THIS CRITICAL ANALYSIS PROCEDURE: The
following is a list and short description of the handouts used in classes:
Handout #1: A Study of Critical Analysis A Start of How to Use Science to Solve
Problems
Handout #2: Introduction
Handout #3: Hints for Critical Analysis in Class Activities and Daily Life: This
handout serves as a starting point for developing a specific repertoire in utilizing
critical analysis. The objective of the handout is to help students develop critical
analysis repertoires that can be used to analyze the events that are used at the
start of class, and more importantly, to develop these same critical analysis skills
for use in daily life.
Handout #4: A Quick Lesson on How to Become a Psychic: This article covers a
wide-range of extraordinary claims used to deceive. A handout where students
played a major role in producing "stuff" you might get from a supposed psychic.
Handout #5: Some Critical Analysis Methods to Consider: This article is geared
towards offering many traditional suggestions for critical thinking/analysis such
as: ad hominid argument, straw person, etc.
Handout #6: Is Less Than Chance Being Called Psychic?
Handout #7: Possible Consequences/Reinforcers for Psychic Behavior.
Handout #8: What is Lost In the Objective Scientific Approach To Human
Behavior? (And Just What is Wrong With Not Being Objective?)
Handout #9: A Case Against Irrationality
Handout #10: Physical Analysis of the World Around Us - What Ways Can We
Make It Look Like Science Principles Are Not At Work?
Handout #11: Cult practices and Critical Analysis
X. "FRINGE" BENEFITS: There are certain fringe benefits to using this method.
Student evaluations indicate that students find it entertaining, fun, interesting
and useful. The procedure also promotes writing skills not found in many
academic situations, that is, the student sees an event that requires new
repertoires to explain. The student quickly has to put this into a written, concise
format which is a difficult task for even the professional writers.
XI. STUDENTS' EVALUATIVE COMMENTS: What we have attempted below is
to take excerpts of student's evaluations of this procedure and summarize these
with some phrases derived from their comments:
-a training session in problem solving and critical thinking
-towards an objective analysis of extra ordinary claims
-a way of "reversing" 20 years of mentalism training
-to view events more from an objective standpoint
-to use observation rather than conjecture
-look for tangible reasons for what I may have accepted as unexplainable
-not believing everything one is told, but to look at what is going on
-not just look and believe, but to make us less gullible
-an aid to improve our debunking skills
-helping us be aware of the functional relationships
-show that illusions are not only entertaining but they can be educational
-to look at what the person actually did, vs. what the person said they did
-getting actively involved in class sessions, to change our outlook on things
-people can be tricked by being told to view things in a certain way
-keep the class fun and useful, help us enjoy the course as we learn
-help us see social deception is a core to many social problems like racism,
sexism and other irrational behaviors
XII. SOME OF THE SUPPORTING DATA: Below are the results of a study
based on the effects of this critical analysis. The mean value before and after
psychic opinion test scores are compared. On this particular survey a lower score
represents a more objective verbal opinion. The first score is the before score.
After the “/” is the after score.
****************************** Before/After
-A Psychol. course in the area of illusions----------------- 32/22
-A core Psych. course with fake E.S.P. demos-----------29/26
-An Intro. Psychol. course with no magic----------------25.6/25.3
-An Introductory Psychology Course
using magic and debunking telelectures-------------------30/15
-A core Psychol. undergraduate course with
fake E.S.P. demos and debunking demos-----------------21/12
-An Intro. Psych. course using daily demos---------------24/0.58
-A core Psychology course using
daily debunking and relate text-------------------------------26/0.56