S.B. - 6
Theory
(Perhaps this unit is a little more difficult, but it can change one’s
perspective of what constitutes an adequate explanation of human
behavior.)
Before studying this material there are probably as many definitions
for the word theory as there are readers of this material. The
definitions of the term theory that are listed immediately below were
given by a college psychology class. The students were asked to write
a definition of theory before this unit was studied.
1. proven facts 12. a hypothesis
2. generalized idea 13. a collection of observations
3. a conclusion 14. a guideline or formula
4. never can be proven 15. a studied concept
5. may be proven 16. an explanation
6. a proven hypothesis 17. an unproved hypothesis
7. series of beliefs 18. an idea with no proof
8. a way of thinking 19. a belief not proven
9. a cause in an experiment 20. a statement
10. an idea of a concept 21. why you believe
11. an opinion
Ambiguity is a part of much of our language, but with theory, as you
see above, different college students are even using the term to refer
to opposites. With so much variance on what is meant by theory,
certainly any adequate discussion would need to first clarify the
definition.
In this unit we shall try to look at a useful concept of theory below.
Science does consist of collecting and cataloging data, but collecting
and cataloging data is not enough. Science is not just a collection of
isolated facts; it is a search for order among the facts it discovers.
Biology is more than a collection of the human organs, just as
chemistry is more than charts of the properties of elements and
compounds. The data in a science is tied together or integrated into a
framework.
Q-l One of the functions of science is a search for: ______.
(order)
Extrapolating or theorizing beyond this data must be done carefully. A
slowing down in terms of advancement occurs when extrapolations in the
form of theory has been made too hasty. A famous writer in this area
of theory, Whitehead, once said that scientific theory takes off from
observations, makes a flight into the thin air of generalization, and
lands for renewed observation. This somewhat poetic statement suggests
that the theories of science are of value just to the extent that they
are grounded in observation.
Considerable discussion exists on how a theory should be constructed. A
classical article on theory is B.F. Skinner's "Are Theories of Learning
Necessary?"
Definition: In this article, theory is defined as any explanation of an
observed fact which appeals to events taking place somewhere else, at
some other level of observation described in different terms, and
measured, if at all, in different dimensions. Here is a mnemonic: device for
learning these features of the definition of theory: Call it : Learning Theory Police Dept. (L.T.P.D.)
Supposed similar to a police dept., this mnemonic is offered as an aid to learning the list of definition features for the
term theory.
A theory is an explanation at different:
Levels (different levels of observation)
Terms (described in different terms)
Place (somewhere else)(different place)
Dimension (If measured at all, measured in a different dimension)
If you don't like the mnemonic above try: LSD-T (LSD tea)
L - Level 5 (different levels of observation)
S - Somewhere else (somewhere else)(different place)
D - Dimension (If measured at all, measured in a different dimension)
T - Terms (described in different terms)
Q-2 Skinner defines theory as an explanation based on: __________.
(see definition above)
In this definition of theory the explanation of theory is in a
different dimension or level of observation. It would be useful to
look at what is meant by the same level of observation. For instance,
when a child learns to write, the teacher shows the child how to hold a
pencil and demonstrates how letters are formed, praises the child for
correct letter formation, etc. The observable writing behavior of the
child interacting with the environment (teacher etc.) is what is meant
by the same level. If the child's learning to write is attributed to
brain functions or an inner ability to learn, then the learning takes
place in a different dimension.
Q-3 In the material immediately above "brain function" "inner ability
to learn" are referred to a different level of __________.
(observation)
ONE: "Physiologizing": Skinner in "Are Theories of Learning
Necessary?" states "we are all familiar with the changes which are
supposed to take place in the nervous system when an organism learns.
Synaptic connections are made or broken, electrical fields are
disrupted or reorganized, concentrations of ions are built up or
allowed to diffuse away, and so on." In a science of behavior where we
are concerned with whether or not an organism does a given behavior all
statements about the nervous system are theories. In a sense that they
are not expressed in the same terms and could not be confirmed with the
same methods of observation as the facts for which they are said to
account.
Q-4 In the science of behavior all statements about the nervous system
are: _________________, if they attempt to explain the cause for
behavior. (theories)
Studying behavior for behavior's sake is a legitimate area of
investigation. Even if all the "functions related to brain spots,"
"gland squirts," and other physiological independent variables could be
correlated with specific behavior, there would still be reasons to
study the environmental variables that change both the organism's
physiology and behavior.
Skinner is not opposed to the study of physiology. He does; however, question the necessity of including it in an analysis or explanation of
behavior. "The English language contains hundreds of expressions which
imply such a causal relationship. At the end of a long trial we read
that the jury shows signs of brain fatigue, that the defendant is on
the verge of a nervous breakdown, and that his lawyer is generally
thought to have lacked the brains needed to stand up to the
prosecution. Obviously, no direct observations have been made of the
brain and/or the nervous systems of any of these people."
Q-5 Skinner contends that statements such as "Synaptic Connections"
are made or broken, electrical fields are disrupted or
reorganized, concentrations of ions are built up or allowed to
diffuse away, are __________ when they are supposed to account
for a behavior. (theory)
TWO "Mentalism": If you explain learning by defining it as problem
solving, expectancy, cognition, etc., you have only extended your
problem. You will need to account for what problem solving is made up
of, what expectancy is, etc. Up to this time theories of this type have
dominated the field of human behavior. They consist of references to
"mental" events as in saying that an organism learns to behave in a
certain way because it "finds something pleasant" or because it
"expects something to happen". To the mentalistic psychologist these
explanatory events are no more theoretical than synaptic connections to
the neurophysiologist, but in a science of behavior they are theories
because the methods and terms appropriate to the events to be explained
differ from the methods and terms appropriate to the explaining events.
Q-6 "Bobby does well in school because he finds school enjoyable."
From Skinner's viewpoint this is an example of the use of:
_______________. (theory)
Theories, whether physiologizing or mentalistic, get in the way of the search for relevant environmental variables. When we attribute behavior to a supposed mental event we are likely to forget that we still have the task of accounting for the causal external event. For example, when we assert that an animal acts in a given way because it"expects" to receive food, then what began as a task of accounting for learned behavior becomes the task of accounting for "expectancy" which then supposedly causes learned behavior. This added complexity is of no real use to the researcher.
Q-7 One of the problems with a mentalistic explanation of expectancy
is that we still have to account for the cause of:
_____________.
(expectancy
)
Inferences: Things that are not directly and publicly observed; as
contrasted with facts or data which are publicly agreed upon.
Q-8 An event which is not directly observed is an: _______________.
(inference)
Response Rate as an Alternative: Alternatives to mentalistic inferences
do exist and should be considered. Rate of responding appears to be
the datum which varies significantly and in the same direction as"learning process." We may be tempted to accept it as our long-soughtfor
measure of behavior. Once in possession of an effective datum,
however, we may feel little need for any theoretical construct of this
sort. Progress in a scientific field usually waits upon the discovery
of a satisfactory dependent variable. Until such a variable has been
discovered we resort to theory. The entities which have figured so
prominently in learning theory have served mainly as substitutes for a
directly observable and productive datum. Now that behavioral
scientists have a useful measure of responding, how much can be done
without resorting to theorizing? What other sorts of scientific
activity are possible? And what light do alternative practices throw
upon our present, perhaps unnecessary, preoccupation with theory?
Q-9 Which datum varies significantly and in the same direction as
'learning process' and is used as the basic datum of measuring
behavior? _______________. (rate)
A False Sense of Security: The problem of accounting for behavior is
complex and difficult. We are likely to use inference to give us an
answer in place of further study.
Q-10 What is produced when inferred answers are used in place of
adequate research? ______________. (false sense of
security)
CNS: Skinner has suggested that the letters CNS have at times been used
to stand for the Conceptual Nervous System instead of the Central
Nervous System. Many theorists point out that they are not talking
about the nervous system as an actual structure undergoing
physiological or bio-chemical changes but only as a system with a
certain dynamic output. This nervous system is unobservable, and is a
theory, when it is supposed to account for behavior. A behavioral
definition of expectancy has the advantage that the problem of mental
inference is avoided, and with it, the problem of how a mental event
can cause a physical one.
Q - 11 Skinner sarcastically contends that CNS has come at times, to
mean not the Central Nervous System, but C____________ N_________
S__________. (conceptual nervous
system)
Some less behaviorally-oriented psychologists have stated that"Learning is adjustment or adaptation to a situation." But we
scientists should ask, "Of what stuff are adjustments and adaptations
made? Are they data, or inferences from data?" "Learning is
improvement." Again we must ask, "Improvement in what?" "From whose
point of view?" "Learning is restoration in equilibrium." "But what
is in equilibrium and how is it put there?" "Learning is problem
solving." But what are the physical dimensions of a problem or of a
solution? These supposed explanations are not useful in so far as they
are not precisely defined in observable terms.
Nature of Research: Research designed with respect to theory is also
likely to be wasteful. Even when a theory generates research it does
not prove its value unless the research is valuable. Much useless
experimentation results from theories, and much energy and skill are
absorbed by them. Most theories are eventually overthrown, and the
greater part of the associated research is discarded. This could be
justified if it were true that productive research requires a theory -
as is, of course, often claimed. It is argued that research would be
aimless and disorganized without a theory to guide it. The view is
supported by psychological texts which take their cue from the
logicians rather than empirical science and describe thinking as
necessarily involving states of hypothesis, deduction, experimental
testing, and confirmation. But this is not the way most scientists
actually work. It is possible to design significant experiments for
other reasons, and the possibility to be examined is that such research
will lead more directly to the kind of information which a science
usually accumulates.
Reductionism: Reduction is defined as the use of constructs and laws
from one discipline to explain the relationships found in another area.
Satirically, but truthfully, it has been stated that the notion of
reductionism has one shortcoming in reference to the study of behavior."We don't know which way is down." If one needs an explanation of the
satire, in reductionism we are reducing down to a more basic level, but
in terms of definitions of this sort it is not clear which direction is
more basic (or down).
Theories are Fun: Perhaps to do without theories altogether is a 'tour
de force' which is too much to expect as a general rule. Theories are
fun. The kind of explanations used in theory allow even whimsical
speculation to suffice, even if the answer is useless. But it is
possible that the most rapid progress toward an understanding of
behavior and its controlling variables may be made by research which is
not designed to test theories. An adequate impetus is supplied by the
inclination to obtain data showing orderly changes characteristic of
the learning process. An acceptable scientific program is to collect
data of this sort and to relate them to manipulable variables.
Q-12 Skinner's view on the major reason theories continue to exist is
that theories are: ________________. (fun)
(The material above was an effort at making sections of the longer and
more technical article more readable. "Are Theories of Learning
Necessary" by B.F. Skinner appeared originally in the Psychological
Review, 1950, volume 57, pages 193-215.)
Questions on Theory
1. Skinner contends that the most rapid progress toward an
understanding of learning will be made by research designed to
test theories.
a. true
b. false (b)
2. Skinner contends that behavioral events should be explained in:
a. physiological terms
b. mental terms
c. behavioral terms
d. conceptual terms
e. all of the above (c)
3. Which of these qualifies as a theory, according to Skinner?
a. events occurring elsewhere
b. events occurring in another dimension
c. events taking place somewhere
d. events, if measured at all, measured in different terms
e. all of the above (e)
4. One of the problems with a mentalistic notion of expectancy is
that:
a. nobody likes it
b. Freud has to be wrong by definition
c. we still have to account for the mental event expectancy
d. you still don't know what part of the brain stores expectancy
e. all of the above (c)
5. Skinner contends that C.N.S. has come to mean:
(conceptual nervous
system)
6. "Theory" as used by Skinner refers to:(see text for full
definition)
7. "Bobby does well in school because he likes school." This is an
example of the use of a theory that would be helpful to a
behavioral scientist interested in Bobby's performance in the
classroom.
a. true
b. false (b)
8. The author is opposed to:
a. The study of physiology
b. Statements such as "synaptic connections are made or broken,
electrical fields are disrupted or reorganized, concentration
of ions are built up or allowed to diffuse away."
c. Such statements as in B above only when they are supposed to
account for learning
d. Statements which are not expressed in the same terms and
could not be confirmed with the same method of observation as
the fact for which they are said to account.
e. c and d above are correct (e)
9. According to Skinner, theories:
a. Give us a false sense of security
b. Give us a satisfactory explanation of behavior
c. Are necessary for experimentation and research
d. In the field of learning are usually a necessity. (a)
10. What is the basic datum for measuring behavior? (rate)
11. Bob will study three times as hard as anyone else because he
enjoys getting good marks. This would best illustrate what
category of theory?
(mentalistic)
12. What categories of theory are described in Skinner's "Are Theories
of Learning Necessary?"
(mentalism and
physiologizing)